Foundations of Physics — 63 Terms Defined

Independent Variable Foundations of Physics Various The experimental condition or factor intentionally manipulated by the researcher to observe its effect on an outcome.

Inertial Mass Foundations of Physics kg A measure of an object's intrinsic resistance to changes in its velocity when subjected to a net force. m = F / a

Kelvin Foundations of Physics K The SI base unit of thermodynamic temperature, defined by fixing the Boltzmann constant to k = 1.380649 × 10⁻²³ J/K. K = °C + 273.15

Least Count Foundations of Physics Various The smallest scale division or magnitude that can be measured directly using a given instrument. Least Count = Main Scale Division / Total Sub-divisions

Least Squares Method Foundations of Physics Dimensionless A statistical technique used to determine the line or curve of best fit through experimental data points by minimizing the sum of squared residual deviations. Minimizing S = ∑ (y_i - (m x_i + c))²

Length Foundations of Physics m The spatial extent or distance between two points measured along a specified path.

Mass Foundations of Physics kg A fundamental intrinsic property of matter that quantifies both the amount of substance in an object and its inertia (resistance to acceleration). m = F / a

Matter Foundations of Physics kg, m³ Anything that possesses mass, occupies volume, and is composed of fundamental particles such as quarks and leptons. E = mc²

Micrometer Screw Gauge Foundations of Physics mm An ultra-precise measuring tool that uses a calibrated screw thread mechanism to measure microscopic thicknesses or diameters. Reading = Main Scale + (Circular Scale Division × Least Count)

Mole Foundations of Physics mol The SI base unit for amount of substance, containing exactly 6.02214076 × 10²³ elementary entities. n = m / M = N / Na

Null Vector Foundations of Physics Various A vector having zero magnitude and an arbitrary or indeterminate direction. 0 = 0i + 0j + 0k

Order of Magnitude Foundations of Physics Dimensionless An exponential estimate of the size of a quantity, expressed as the power of ten closest to the numerical value. 10^n

Percentage Uncertainty Foundations of Physics % The absolute uncertainty of a measurement divided by the measured value, expressed as a percentage. Percentage Uncertainty = (Δx / x) × 100%

Physical Quantity Foundations of Physics Various A quantifiable property of a physical system or phenomenon that can be measured and expressed as a numerical value multiplied by a unit. Quantity = Value × Unit

Planck's Constant Foundations of Physics J·s A fundamental physical constant that sets the scale for quantum mechanical phenomena, relating photon energy to its frequency. E = hf, h = 6.62607015 × 10⁻³⁴ J·s

Polar Coordinates Foundations of Physics m, rad A 2D coordinate system specifying point location by radial distance r from the origin and angular displacement θ from a reference axis. x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ, r = √(x² + y²)

Precision Foundations of Physics Various The degree of agreement or repeatability among independent measurements of the same quantity taken under identical conditions. Standard Deviation (σ)

Pressure Foundations of Physics Pa The perpendicular force exerted per unit surface area over which that force is distributed. P = F / A

Random Error Foundations of Physics Various Unpredictable, non-repeatable fluctuations in experimental measurements that occur with equal probability in either direction. Standard Error = σ / √N

Reproducibility Foundations of Physics N/A The requirement that an experimental finding can be independently duplicated by other researchers using the same procedures.

Resultant Vector Foundations of Physics Various The single combined vector that produces the exact same net physical effect as two or more individual vectors acting simultaneously. R = A + B = √(A² + B² + 2AB cos θ)

Scalar Foundations of Physics Various A physical quantity that is completely specified by its magnitude (value and unit) alone, possessing no direction.

Scalar Product Foundations of Physics Various An algebraic vector operation that multiplies two vectors to yield a scalar equal to the product of their magnitudes and the cosine of the angle between them. A · B = |A||B| cos θ = Ax Bx + Ay By + Az Bz

Scientific Law Foundations of Physics N/A A concise verbal or mathematical statement that describes a universal, consistently observed relationship in nature under specified conditions.