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Thermodynamics & Statistical Physics

Graham's Law of Effusion

The law stating that rate of effusion or diffusion of a gas is inversely proportional to square root of its molar mass.

Rate1 / Rate2 = √(M2 / M1) mol/s or m³/s Condensed Matter & Materials Physics

Graphene

A single two-dimensional layer of carbon atoms bound in a hexagonal honeycomb crystal lattice.

E(k) = ± ℏ v_F |k| (Dirac Cone Dispersion) v_F ≈ 10⁶ m/s (Fermi Velocity) Geophysics & Environmental Physics

Gravimetry

The precise measurement of spatial and temporal variations in Earth's gravitational acceleration field.

g_observed = g_theoretical + Δg_FreeAir - Δg_Bouguer + Δg_Terrain mGal (Milligals = 10⁻⁵ m/s²) Foundations of Physics

Gravitational Constant

The empirical physical constant relating the gravitational force between two masses to their product and inverse-square separation.

G = 6.67430 × 10⁻¹¹ N·m²/kg² N·m²/kg² Astrophysics, Cosmology & Relativity

Gravitational Lensing

The bending of light rays from a background astronomical source around a massive foreground object acting as a gravitational lens.

θ_deflection = (4 G M) / (c² b) Arcseconds (Angular Deflection) Foundations of Physics

Gravitational Mass

A measure of the strength of the gravitational force exerted or experienced by an object in a gravitational field.

m = F_g / g kg Astrophysics, Cosmology & Relativity

Gravitational Time Dilation

The phenomenon where time passes measurably slower in regions of lower gravitational potential (stronger gravity).

t_0 = t_f √(1 - 2 G M / (r c²)) Seconds (Relativistic Time Difference) Astrophysics, Cosmology & Relativity

Gravitational Waves

Ripples in the curvature of spacetime that propagate outward as transverse waves at the speed of light, generated by accelerating…

h_ij = (2 G / (c⁴ r)) (d²I_ij / dt²), Strain h = ΔL / L ~ 10⁻²¹ Dimensionless Strain h (10⁻²¹) Classical Mechanics

Gravity

The universal attractive force between masses, causing mutual acceleration proportional to mass and inversely proportional to squared…

Fg = G m1 m2 / r² N Astrophysics, Cosmology & Relativity

Great Attractor

A massive gravitational anomaly in intergalactic space at the center of the Laniakea Supercluster pulling galaxies across hundreds of…

v_peculiar ~ 600 km/s towards Laniakea Supercluster center M_☉ (Gravitational Anomaly Mass) Mathematical & Computational Physics

Green's Function

An impulse response function used to solve inhomogeneous linear differential equations subject to specified boundary conditions.

L G(x, x') = δ(x - x'), y(x) = ∫ G(x, x') f(x') dx' Impulse Response Function Mathematical & Computational Physics

Green's Theorem

A 2D vector calculus theorem relating a line integral around a simple closed curve C to a double area integral over the enclosed plane…

∮_C (L dx + M dy) = ∬_D ((∂M/∂x) - (∂L/∂y)) dx dy 2D Vector Integral Theorem Geophysics & Environmental Physics

Greenhouse Effect

The thermodynamic warming process by which atmospheric greenhouse gases absorb outgoing infrared terrestrial radiation and re-emit it in…

T_surface = T_effective (1 + ¾ τ_IR)^(1/4) (Radiative Equilibrium) °C or Kelvin (Warming Effect) Mathematical & Computational Physics

Group Theory

The mathematical study of groups and algebraic symmetry structures.

Group Axioms: Closure, Associativity, Identity, Inverse Symmetry Groups (SO(3), SU(2), SU(3)) Waves, Oscillations & Acoustics

Group Velocity

The velocity at which the overall envelope shape of a wave packet travels through space, representing energy transport speed.

v_g = dω / dk m/s Geophysics & Environmental Physics

Gutenberg Discontinuity

The major geophysical boundary located at a depth of ~2,890 km marking the sharp transition between Earth's solid mantle and liquid outer…

Depth z ≈ 2890 km (Core-Mantle Boundary D'' Layer) km (Boundary Depth) Plasma Physics

Gyroradius & Cyclotron Frequency

The helical orbital radius (Larmor radius r_L) and angular frequency (cyclotron frequency ω_c) of a charged particle orbiting a magnetic…

r_L = (m v_⊥) / (|q| B), ω_c = (|q| B) / m m (Larmor Radius) & rad/s (Cyclotron Frequency)